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Chapter 5: Aviation

Highlights

Read this chapter to:

  • Understand the unique barriers women face in accessing and benefiting from air travel, including challenges related to mobility, affordability, accessibility, and personal security in the aviation sector.
  • Learn about practical interventions to improve the safety, infrastructure, and inclusivity of airports and air transport systems for women travelers and workers.
  • Explore strategies for advancing women’s employment and leadership in aviation, from recruitment and training to career progression and workplace policy reforms.
  • Gain insights on addressing gender disparities in aviation through data-driven approaches, partnerships, and targeted programs that support both gender equality and sector resilience.

Overview:

Aviation projects are designed to enhance the safety, security, and efficiency of air transport and its infrastructure across various regions.

These projects focus on improving operational safety, navigational efficiency, and airport infrastructure that are resilient to natural disasters and climate change. Objectives include strengthening the capacity of aviation safety offices to deliver oversight and technical services, as well as ensuring immediate response capabilities in the event of crises or emergencies. Additionally, these projects aim to bolster the sustainability of associated infrastructure, such as roads, and enhance the capacity of key agencies in air transportation operations and airport investment planning. By targeting these areas, aviation projects support reliable regional air connectivity and contribute to the overall safety and resilience of the aviation sector.

Mobility

Women face several mobility barriers in the aviation sector that limit their ability to access and benefit from air travel. 

A woman and baby in an airport

 

Availability of services is a major challenge, especially in remote or low-income areas where flight options are limited. The lack of women-centered facilities—such as nursing rooms or safe transport to and from airports—further restricts access. Additionally, affordability remains a key constraint. These challenges are compounded by inadequate accessibility features and safety concerns, including the risk of harassment and the lack of proper support systems within airports and aircraft.

🚌 Availability

There is limited research on the mobility barriers women face in air travel, compared to other modes of transportation. However, the aviation sector is not immune to such challenges. Availability of air travel services can pose a significant barrier for women, particularly in low-income or remote areas. Women, who may already face economic constraints, often have fewer opportunities to access convenient flight routes or travel at preferred times. Flight schedules frequently do not align with women’s time-use patterns, and there is limited availability of women-centered services, such as female-only seating, nursing rooms, or women-friendly check-in options in airports. Additionally, the lack of access to private vehicles can make it difficult for women to reach airports or parking facilities safely and conveniently—especially in areas where public transportation is unreliable, unsafe, or unavailable during early morning or late-night hours. Table 5.1 highlights some of the interventions and the associated indicators to address air transport availability for women travelers.  

INTERVENTIONS 

OUTPUT INDICATORS 

Data Collection to establish baselines for air travel:
Conduct a study to collect sex-disaggregated data on mobility needs related to air travel, focusing on:

  • Travel patterns, including mode of access to airports, trip duration, frequency, purpose, and first- and last-mile connectivity.
  • Travel preferences and perceptions regarding the affordability, availability, accessibility, safety, and personal security of air travel.
Survey conducted to collect and analyze data air travel usage, including travel patterns, frequency, purpose, travel times, and distances and first and last mile connectivity—disaggregated by sex and other demographic and socioeconomic factors.

Availability: Expand regional and low-cost air routes to underserved or remote areas, especially those with poor transport connectivity.

Provide airport shuttle services with safe, women-friendly access, especially during off-peak hours.

  • Number of new or expanded regional routes serving low-access areas.
  • Number of shuttle/last-mile services to/from airports specifically targeting women travelers.
  • Number of airports with female-friendly transport options available at night or early morning.

OUTCOME INDICATORS 

  • Number/percentage of women from remote/low-income areas using air travel.
  • Change in time/distance-related barriers reported by women traveling to/from airports.

💰 Affordability

Affordability is another major mobility constraint limiting women’s access to air travel, particularly for those in lower-income brackets or with informal or unstable sources of income. Women are more likely than men to face economic disparities due to wage gaps, unpaid care responsibilities, and limited access to financial resources or formal employment. As a result, even when air travel is available, it may remain out of reach for many women. Additional costs—such as baggage fees, ground transportation, childcare arrangements, or accommodations—can further discourage or prevent women from flying. In many cases, travel decisions within households may prioritize men’s mobility, especially for work or income-generating opportunities, while women’s travel needs, including for health and education, are deprioritized. 

Table 5.2 highlights some of the interventions and the associated indicators to address affordability barriers that women travelers face. However, it is important to note that, unlike in other transport sub-sectors, most of these interventions remain largely untested in the aviation sector. Aside from occasional ad-hoc initiatives during events such as International Women’s Day, there has been limited implementation of sustained or systemic affordability initiatives for women traveling by air. 

INTERVENTIONS 

OUTPUT INDICATORS 

Following are some of the interventions that could potentially address affordability barriers for women air travelers:

  • Bundle airfares with ground transport to reduce hidden costs.
  • Offer flexible payment schemes (e.g., installment plans, fare savings programs).
  • Incentivize airlines to include women-focused subsidies through government partnerships.
  • Number of women travelers benefiting from bundled services.
  • Number of women enrolled in flexible fare payment schemes.
  • Number of partnerships established between airlines and government agencies for women-focused subsidies.

OUTCOME INDICATORS 

  • Change in the gender gap in air travel access.
  • Number/percentage of women traveling by air for education, health or work.
  • Number/percentage of women’ traveling for long-distance job interviews, training, or conferences enabled by air travel.

🧑‍🦯 Accessibility

Women often face a variety of accessibility concerns in airports and planes, such as cramped bathrooms that are particularly difficult for pregnant women and parents with children. There is also a lack of women-friendly facilities; traveling during menstruation, for example, can be challenging, especially when inflight bathrooms are overcrowded or lack proper hygiene provisions. Table 5.3 highlights some of the interventions and the associated indicators to address accessibility barriers that women travelers face.

INTERVENTIONS 

OUTPUT INDICATORS 

  • Invest in larger, more accessible restrooms that accommodate the needs of pregnant women, those with mobility impairments, and passengers with health conditions.
  • Equip the restrooms with necessary hygiene facilities, such as sanitary product dispensers and proper disposal options. Provide sanitary product dispensers and offer privacy and space in restrooms.
  • The number of accessible restrooms.
  • Availability of hygiene facilities with sanitary product dispensers and proper disposal options.

OUTCOME INDICATORS 

  • Number/percentage of women and men being satisfied with airports and airlines concerning comfort and accessibility of their facilities.

🚨 Safety and Personal Security

Additionally, personal security can be an issue, as women may experience harassment or feel unsafe during boarding, disembarking, or while in flight, particularly in crowded or unmonitored spaces that complicate reporting, intervention, and prevention of harassment. Issues arise because of constrained space and proximity, fear of retaliation from perpetrators, lack of suitable training for the cabin crew, (who are typically trained in how to handle emergencies, but not necessarily complex harassment situations), as well as legal and jurisdictional issues, making it unclear which country’s laws apply in a charge case of harassment. Table 5.4 highlights some of the interventions and the associated indicators to address safety and personal security barriers that women travelers face. 

INTERVENTIONS 

OUTPUT INDICATORS 

Following are some of the interventions to address some of the safety and personal security barriers for women in aviation:

  • Staff training: Train the crew not only in emergency protocols but also in how to recognize and handle harassment or other forms of gender-based violence. This includes understanding different forms of harassment, responding empathetically, and de-escalating situations effectively.
  • Reporting mechanisms: Implement a clear, visible, and easy-to-use system for passengers to report harassment or inappropriate behavior during flights. This could include digital reporting options or confidential assistance via flight attendants.
  • Protocols for handling harassment cases: Adopt protocols for dealing with harassment complaints, including an understanding of how such cases will be handled once a flight lands, which legal system will oversee the case, and how perpetrators will be held accountable.
  • Collaboration with law enforcement: Work with local law enforcement agencies to ensure that harassment incidents are taken seriously and addressed quickly once a flight lands, regardless of jurisdictional complexities.
  • Improved awareness and education: Engage in educational campaigns to raise passenger awareness about appropriate behavior and the consequences of harassment. Clear signs could be used to help educate all passengers about respectful behavior during flights.
  • Postflight support: For women who experience harassment during a flight, provide immediate postflight support, including access to counseling or referral services. This can include offering assistance through hotlines, providing legal support, or connecting passengers to advocacy groups that can help navigate the aftermath of an incident.
  • Percentage of crew who have undergone anti-harassment training.
  • Number of harassment incidents reported.
  • Length of time to respond to reported incidents.
  • Rate of case closure with transparent action (rate of harassment cases where the passenger receives a clear update on investigation outcomes and actions taken).

OUTCOME INDICATORS 

  • Number/percentage change in women and men trusting airline safety protocols and airlines’ ability to protect them from harassment and respond appropriately.
  • Change in perception of safety among women accessing airports, especially during night and off-peak hours.
  • Number of harassment cases that result in appropriate actions or legal follow-ups, showing that the airline’s protocols are implemented.

Human trafficking is one of the major forms of GBV in the aviation sector, affecting men and boys, though women and girls are disproportionately victimized. Traffickers exploit the aviation industry’s global reach, yet there is a lack of comprehensive training and oversight to combat this effectively. Table 5.5 includes some interventions and the associated indicators to address human trafficking in aviation. 

INTERVENTIONS 

OUTPUT INDICATORS 

Following are some of the interventions to address human trafficking threats in aviation:

  • Enhanced airport safety protocols: Strengthen safety and security protocols at airports to protect potential trafficking victims, including designated safe spaces and support services.
  • Accessible reporting mechanisms: Establish clear, accessible reporting mechanisms for both staff and passengers to report suspected human trafficking incidents.
  • Public awareness: Launch public awareness campaigns in airports and through airline communication channels to educate passengers about the signs of human trafficking and how to report them.
  • Coordination with partners: Develop partnerships with law enforcement agencies and NGOs to ensure a coordinated response to human trafficking cases in the aviation sector.
  • Number of airports with designated safe spaces and support services for trafficking victims.
  • Number of interventions and rescues of trafficking victims based on reported incidents.
  • Number of reported human trafficking incidents through established mechanisms.
  • Number of awareness campaigns launched in airports and through airline communication channels.
  • Awareness of safety protocols among airport staff.
  • Number of partnership agreements signed with law enforcement and NGOs.

OUTCOME INDICATORS 

  • Number of trafficking cases reported by staff and passengers.
  • Number/percentage of trafficking victims supported and rescued through coordinated efforts, by sex and age.
  • Interagency response time to trafficking incidents.

Employment

Women in aviation face notable barriers in recruitment, retention, and advancement. 

While cabin crew jobs have provided entry points, women remain underrepresented in roles like pilots, engineers, and ground operations due to limited access to training, weak STEM pathways, and gender stereotypes. Safety and harassment concerns—especially mid-flight—are worsened by weak reporting systems. Career progression is further hindered by limited mentorship, international mobility demands, and a lack of female role models in senior positions. Addressing these challenges requires coordinated efforts to expand training opportunities, strengthen HR policies, and foster inclusive leadership pathways.

🤝 Outreach and Recruitment

The aviation sector offers diverse employment pathways, spanning both ground operations and airborne roles. Ground-based positions include airport management, ground handling, passenger services, and freight operations, while flying jobs include pilots, aviation engineers, and cabin crew. However, women’s access to these opportunities remains uneven.

Cabin crew positions have emerged as a primary entry point for women—particularly in emerging markets—offering pathways to international careers. Yet, this success in attracting women has not translated across all aviation segments. Technical roles remain heavily male-dominated due to multiple barriers at the recruitment stage. These include limited access to aviation-related training, insufficient encouragement for women to pursue STEM education, and persistent stereotypes about women’s technical capabilities. Table 5.6 presents some interventions and the accompanying indicators to attract and employ women in aviation.

INTERVENTIONS 

OUTPUT INDICATORS 

Assessment to establish the baseline and action plan: Conduct analysis of barriers to women's recruitment, retention, and promotion in aviation. Gather sex-disaggregated data across airports and airlines, including employment, job roles, training, and leave policies. Use findings to develop an action plan with targeted measures like training programs, HR policies, and awareness initiatives to advance gender equality in the sector.
  • Assessment undertaken resulting in actionable recommendations and time-bound and budgeted action plan.
Outreach: Launch outreach campaigns to challenge stereotypes and reshape perceptions about women’s roles in aviation. Promote the sector as a rewarding career path for women.
  • Number of images and articles showing women in technical and leadership jobs in aviation
  • Airport and airline websites and communications emphasize they are equal opportunity employers
  • Number of women expressing interest in aviation careers
  • Number of outreach campaigns conducted.

Nurturing female talent:

  • Education talks: Employer visiting schools and universities to talk about the value of work in aviation and the importance of promoting women in the sector.
  • “Open days:” Organizing “open days” where potential candidates (especially women and young people) are invited to visit the workplace and talk to staff. This could help challenge or demystify some aspects of careers in aviation.
  • Number of girls contacted through education talks and “open days”.
  • Links deepened or created between urban transport employers and education institutions through MoUs.
Internships: Offer paid internships to female university students in engineering, transport, and aviation roles to provide hands-on experience and encourage long-term careers in the sector.
  • Number/share of women who enrolled and completed internship programs out of total number or share of enrollment or completions for interns.
Training: Provide specialized accredited training programs and apprenticeship programs for women to prepare them for jobs in the aviation industry, including mid- and high-skilled technical positions, in collaboration with engineering and aviation schools.
  • Number of women trained and certified in aviation-specific programs. 

OUTCOME INDICATORS 

Number/percent of women recruited and retained by different job levels, as compared to number and share of men for corresponding roles, including:

  • Low-skilled roles; for example, ground crew, luggage handler, customer service representative.
  • Mid-skilled roles; for example, flight attendant, air traffic controller, aircraft maintenance technician, ground operations staff, flight dispatcher, airport security.
  • High-skilled roles; for example, pilot, airspace engineer, traffic manager.

📝 HR Policies and Practices

The aviation sector’s human resources (HR) policies and practices require substantial strengthening to support gender equality. One of the major challenges is the sector’s 24/7 operational nature, which demands flexible scheduling. However, current policies often fail to accommodate employees with family responsibilities. Limited flexibility in shift assignments and inadequate support for work-life balance disproportionately affect women, who are more likely to bear caregiving duties.

Safety and harassment policies also need significant improvement. Current procedures for reporting and addressing in-flight harassment are often unclear or insufficient. Given the isolated and mobile nature of aviation work, especially mid-flight, specialized and responsive policies are needed to ensure workplace safety and support for affected employees. Many airlines lack clear protocols for addressing incidents, and when they do exist, fear of retaliation or career impact often deters women from reporting.

Effective HR systems must therefore include tailored harassment prevention strategies, accessible reporting channels, and mechanisms that account for the unique operating environment of aviation. Table 5.7 presents some interventions and the corresponding indicators to improve human resources policies and practices by the employers in the aviation. Box 5.1. presents the example from Kiribati.

INTERVENTIONS 

OUTPUT INDICATORS 

  • Flexible work-life policies: Revise or adopt HR policies to include provisions such as flexible working hours, parental leave, and childcare to balance professional and personal responsibilities.
  • Sexual harassment policy: Develop a sexual harassment policy with an accompanying implementation plan that is accessible to all staff and available on the company website.
  • Isolated worker policy: Develop an isolated worker policy with an accompanying implementation plan that is accessible to all staff and available on the employer website.

 

  • Policies rolled out with staff-wide communication.
  • Employer introducing flexible work options and family support benefits.
  • Number/percentage of women utilizing flexible work options.
  • A statement developed and shared by the company’s senior management that no form of sexual harassment is tolerated.
Childcare facility: Establish employer-provided childcare services, tailored to the organization's business needs and workforce size. Additionally, consider offering financial support to employees—such as childcare subsidies or vouchers—to help cover associated costs.
  • Childcare facility established or upgraded in compliance with national standards.
  • Number of staff (women and men) benefiting from childcare facilities or subsidies.
Workplace Infrastructure and PPE: Ensure the provision of gender-sensitive workplace infrastructure, including separate toilets and changing rooms, adequate lighting, and PPE that is appropriately designed to fit both women and men.
  • Number/percentage of workplace facilities equipped with separate toilets, changing rooms, and appropriate lighting.
  • Gender-sensitive PPE provided to all workers who require it.
A staff satisfaction survey: Conduct periodic surveys to assess staff satisfaction with employment terms, working conditions, professional development, and perceptions of equal opportunity. Results should be disaggregated by sex and other demographics to inform and evaluate relevant initiatives and identify areas for improvement.
  • Surveys completed periodically.
  • Results disseminated and discussed among staff.
  • Percentage of recommendations acted upon.
  • Staff feedback on overall communication improved. 

OUTCOME INDICATORS 

  • Number/percentage of women employed and/or retained with the organization, in total and by different job levels, including low-, mid-, and high-skilled technical roles, as compared to number and share of men for corresponding roles.
  • Number/percentage of staff reporting improved job satisfaction, after the introduction or improvement of company’s human resources policies and practices; disaggregated by sex and other key organizational metrics.
Case Study Kiribati: Addressing Employment Barriers

 

🧩 The Challenge

The Kiribati Kiritimati Infrastructure Project (P506425) aims to promote women’s employment in Kiritimati Island where women’s labor force participation rate lags 14% behind men’s, and women

 

🧩 The Challenge

The Kiribati Kiritimati Infrastructure Project (P506425) aims to promote women’s employment in Kiritimati Island where women’s labor force participation rate lags 14% behind men’s, and women are primarily confined to informal economic activities such as handicraft production, street vending, and tourism services.

🛠️ The Intervention

The project will prioritize women’s professional development through targeted capacity building and skills training. Airport operations training will maintain a minimum 30% female participation rate. Regular training plans will ensure a sustained focus on women’s career advancement throughout implementation. Safety audits will inform road design features, including enhanced lighting and visibility, minimize dark spots and improve walkability for women beside the road. The upgraded CXI-London Road will explore creating dedicated spaces for local women vendors and traders. The airport terminal design will explore whether the infrastructure can be adapted to provide a separate access channel for domestic violence survivors.

 

Note: Anita Shrestha, Senior Transport Specialist at the World Bank, provided inputs into this case study.

🪜 Career Progression

Career progression poses significant challenges across all aviation roles, particularly for flight attendants. Women in these roles often face safety and harassment concerns that impact their well-being and long-term career sustainability. The confined and often isolated environment of aircraft creates unique vulnerabilities. Flight attendants may experience harassment from passengers, colleagues during long-haul flights, or even supervisory staff. Reporting mechanisms for these incidents are frequently inadequate, especially for mid-flight occurrences. The international nature of aviation further complicates jurisdictional issues and reporting procedures. Power dynamics—such as those between pilots and cabin crew—can make reporting difficult and resolution elusive. 

Long-term exposure to these risks has serious implications for women’s ability to stay and thrive in the industry. To improve retention, the sector must prioritize the creation of safe, respectful working environments, along with clear and supportive grievance redress mechanisms. Key interventions could include the establishment of formal performance review systems linked to competencies and promotion pathways and adoption of unbiased recruitment and promotion practices. Implementing mentorship programs that pair women with senior professionals—both male and female—can help build skills, confidence, and career visibility. Table 5.7 outlines these interventions along with relevant output and outcome indicators.

INTERVENTIONS 

OUTPUT INDICATORS 

A performance review system: Develop a performance review system for staff with a standardized framework linking performance reviews to workforce competencies, skills development, and promotions.

A range of actions can achieve this objective, such as: establishing a promotion committee comprised of both women and men, adopting a blind selection process where candidates’ resumes do not include personal details, and testing participants without revealing their personal details so as to eliminate potential conscious or unconscious gender bias in promotion decisions.

  • Number/percentage of promotion committee members completing training on unconscious bias and gender equality.
  • Gender balance in decision-making processes, ensuring a fairer and more diverse representation in promotion decisions.

Women’s mentorship program: Implement a mentorship program pairing women with senior female and male professionals in aviation, focusing on various issues such as, improving technical and soft skills and addressing specific workplace challenges.
  • Number/percentage of women participating in the mentorship program.
  • Employer introducing the women’s mentorship program.
Women’s networking: Create for women in aviation to connect, share experiences, and seek mentorship. Organize events for networking and building connections in the sector.
  • Number of women participating in networking platforms.
Annual review process: Implement an annual review to track progress in women’s promotion, using specific metrics to measure effectiveness and adjust initiatives as needed.
  • Employer introducing annual review process.

OUTCOME INDICATORS 

  • Number/percentage of women promoted within X months/years after the introduction of the formal performance review system.
  • Number/percentage of women promoted within X months/years after the introduction of the women’s mentorship program.
  • Change in employee perceptions of organizational culture related to equal employment opportunities (measured through regular staff satisfaction surveys).

🌟 Leadership

Despite initial opportunities through cabin crew positions, women face significant barriers in advancing to high-status roles such as pilots or senior management. Advancement requires access to specialized training, international mobility, and overcoming entrenched stereotypes about women's technical and leadership capabilities.

Balancing career development with caregiving responsibilities is a further barrier. Opportunities for promotion often require frequent travel or relocation, which can disproportionately affect women. The limited presence of women in leadership also creates a lack of visible role models and mentors, reinforcing the gender gap at the top.

Addressing these issues requires deliberate investment in women’s career development, including leadership pipelines, mentorship opportunities, and institutional commitments to gender equity in decision-making roles. Table 5.8 presents some interventions and the corresponding indicators to address these barriers.

INTERVENTIONS 

OUTPUT INDICATORS 

Women’s Leadership program: Establish a targeted leadership training program for women in aviation, focusing on strategic planning, financial management, and team leadership.
  • Number/percentage of enrolled participants who successfully complete the training program.
Annual review process: Implement an annual review to track progress in women’s representation in managerial and senior roles, using specific metrics to measure effectiveness and adjust initiatives as needed.
  • Employer introducing annual review process.

OUTCOME INDICATORS 

  • Number/percentage of women promoted to leadership roles within X months/years after the introduction of the women’s leadership training program.
  • Change in employee perceptions of organizational culture related to equal employment opportunities (measured through regular staff satisfaction surveys).